Students are most at risk of cumulative cognitive deficit if they experienced...

The correct answer is based on the understanding that cumulative cognitive deficits are often associated with chronic adversity and a lack of stimulating environments during critical periods of development. In the case of international adoption, a child may have faced early life challenges such as neglect, lack of stable caregiver relationships, or insufficient cognitive stimulation prior to adoption. These factors can contribute to delays in cognitive development and academic achievement, especially if the adoption occurred later in childhood and the child had limited access to enriching educational experiences.

In contrast, ongoing school attendance, high levels of parental involvement, and participation in enrichment programs are generally positively correlated with cognitive development. Consistent school attendance provides access to a structured learning environment, while high levels of parental involvement can lead to increased support and encouragement for learning activities. Participation in enrichment programs further enhances cognitive skills by providing additional learning opportunities, creative outlets, and exposure to diverse experiences and ideas. Thus, these options do not pose the same risk for cumulative cognitive deficits as the experience of early adversity linked to international adoption.